Riddle In Hinduism
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Contents
Riddle no. 16 : The four varnas-are
the brahmins sure of their origin?
Riddle no. 17 : The four
ashramas—the why and how about them
Riddle no.18 : Manu's madness or the brahmanic explanation of the
origin of the mixed castes
Riddle no. 19 : The change
from paternity to maternity. What did the brahmins wish to
gain by it?
Riddle no. 20 : Kali varjya or the brahmanic
art of suspending the operation of sin without calling it sin
Appendix I : The riddle of the varnashram dharma
Appendix II : Compulsory
matrimony
PART II
SOCIAL
According to the original Table of Contents by the author
Part I and Part III are classified as Religious and Political respectively while Part II
is not given any classification. However, this part is classified as 'Social on one of the
pages from Riddle No. 21. This Part contained six riddles including ' The Riddle of Women entitled ' Why did the Brahmins degrade the
Indian Women ? '. This chapter has already been included in Vol. No. 3 of this series
under the title ' Revolution and Counter-Revolution ' vide
Ch. 17. Hence it is excluded from this volume.
THE FOUR VARNAS-ARE THE BRAHMINS SURE OF THEIR ORIGIN?
It is the cardinal faith of every Hindu that the Hindu
Social Order is a Divine Order. The prescriptions of this Divine Order are three. First Society is permanently divided into four
classes namely (1) Brahmins, (2) Kshatriyas, (3) Vaishyas and (4) Shudras. Second the four classes in point of their mutual
status are linked together in an order of graded inequality. The Brahmins are at the head
and above all others. The Kshatriyas below the Brahmins but above the Vaishyas and the
Shudras. The Vaishyas below the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas but above the Shudras and the
Shudras below all. Third the occupations of the
four classes are fixed. The occupation of the Brahmins is to acquire learning and to
teach. The occupation of the Kshatriyas is to fight, that of the Vaishyas to trade and
that of the Shudras to serve as menials to the other three classes above him. This is
called by the Hindus the Varna Vevastha. It is the very soul of Hinduism. Without Varna
Vevastha there is nothing else in Hinduism to distinguish it from other religions. That
being so it is only proper that an enquiry should be made into the origin of this Varna
system.
For an explanation of its origin we must have recourse to
what the ancient Hindu literature has to say on the subject.
It would be better to collect together in the first place
the views expressed in the Vedas.
This is a 33-page typed script having all necessary
corrections and additions incorporated by the author. There are two concluding pages
written by the author himself. All the pages of the chapter are loose sheets tagged
together with a title page in the handwriting of the author.—Ed.
The subject is referred to in the Rig-Veda in the 90th Hymn
of the 10th Book. It runs as follows:
" 1. Purusha has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes, a
thousand feet. On every side enveloping the earth, he overpassed (it) by a space of ten
fingers. 2. Purusha himself is this whole (universe), whatever has been and whatever shall
be. He is also the lord of immortality since (or, when) by food he expands. 3. Such is his
greatness, and Purusha is superior to this. All existences are a quarter of him; and
three-fourths of him are that which is immortal in the sky. 4. With three quarters Purusha
mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced here. He was then diffused everywhere
over things which eat and things which do not eat. 5. From him was born Viraj, and from
Viraj, Purusha. When born, he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. 6. When
the Gods performed a sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation, the spring was its butter,
the summer its fuel, and the autumn its (accompanying) offering. 7. This victim Purusha,
born in the beginning, they immolated on the sacrificial grass. With him the gods, the
Sadhyas, and the rishis sacrificed. 8. From that universal sacrifice were provided curds
and butter. It formed those aerial (creatures) and animals both wild and tame. 9: From the
universal sacrifice sprang the rich and saman verses, the metres and the yajush. 10. From it sprang horses, and all animals
with two rows of teeth; kine sprang from it; from it goats and sheep. 11. When (the gods)
divided Purusha, into how many parts did they cut him up? What was his mouth ? What arms
(had he) ? What (two objects) are said (to have been) his thighs and feet? 12. The Brahman
was his mouth; the Rajanya was made his arms; the being (called) the Vaisya, he was his
thighs; the Sudra sprang from his feet. 13. The moon sprang from his soul (manas), the sun
from his eye, Indra and Agni from his mouth, and Vayu from his breath. 14. From his navel
arose the air, from his head the sky, from his feet the earth, from his ear the (four)
quarters; in this manner (the gods) formed the worlds. 15. When the gods, performing
sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven sticks (struck up) for it (around
the fire), and thrice seven pieces of fuel were made. 16. With sacrifice the gods
performed the sacrifice. These were the earliest rites. These great powers have sought the
sky, where are the former Sadhyas, gods. "
This hymn is known by its general name Purusha Sukta and is
supposed to embody the official doctrine of Varna.
How far do the other Vedas support this theory?
The
Sama-Veda has not incorporated the Purusha Sukta among its hymns. Nor does it give any
other explanation of the Varna.
The Yajur-Veda has two branches—the White Yajur-Veda and the Black Yajur- Veda.
The Black Yajur-Veda is known to have three Sanhitas or
collection of Mantras, the Kathaka Sanhita, the Maitriyani Sanhita and Taitterriya Sanhita.
The White Yajur-Veda has only one Sanhita which is known as
Vajasaneya Sanhita. The Maitriyani Sanhita
and the Kathak Sanhita of the Black Yajur-
Veda do not make any reference to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig-Veda; nor do they
attempt to give any other explanation of the origin
of the Varna system.
It is only Taitterriya Sanhita of the Black Yajur-Veda and
the Vajasaneya Sanhita of the White Yajur-Veda that have spoken something relating to the
Varna system.
The Vajasaneya Sanhita contains one explanation of the
origin of the Varna System. The Taitterriya Sanhita on the other hand contains two
explanations. There are two things to be noted about these two explanations contained in
the Taitterriya Sanhita. The first is that these two do not agree with each other in the
least; they are quite different. The second is that one of them agrees completely with
that contained in the Vajasaneya Sanhita of the White Yajur-Veda. The following is the
text of the Taitterriya Sanhita which may be taken as an independent explanation:
" He (the Vratya) became filled with passions thence
sprang the Rajanya ".
" Let the king to whose house the Vratya who knows
this, comes as a guest, cause him to be respected as superior to himself. So doing he does
no injury to his royal rank, or to his realm. From him arose the Brahman (Brahman) and the
Kshattra (Kshatriya)., They said, 'Into whom shall we enter, etc."
The explanation contained in the Vajasaneya Sanhita which
tallies with the second[f1] explanation
given by the Taitterriya Sanhita reads as follows:
"He lauded with one. Living beings were formed.
Prajapati was the ruler. He lauded with three: the Brahman was created: : Brahmanaspati
was the rule?. He lauded with five; existing things were created : Brahamanaspati was the
ruler. He lauded with seven; the seven rishis were created; Dhatri was the ruler. He
lauded with nine; the Fathers were created: Aditi was the ruler. He lauded with eleven:
the seasons were created: the Artavas were the rulers. He lauded with thirteen: the months
were created: the year was the ruler. He lauded with fifteen: the Kshattra (the
Kshattriya) was created: Indra was the ruler. He lauded with seventeen: animals were
created: Brihaspati was the ruler. He lauded with nineteen; the Sudra and the Arya
(Vaisya) were created: day and night were the rulers. He lauded with twenty-one : animals
with undivided hoofs were created: Varuna was the ruler. He lauded with twenty-three:
small animals were created: Pushan was the ruler. He lauded with twenty-five; wild animals
were created: Vayu was the ruler (compare R.V.x. 90, 8). He lauded with twenty-seven:
heaven and earth separated: Vasus, Rudras, and Adityas separated after them: they were the
rulers. He lauded with twenty-nine: trees were created: Soma was the ruler. He lauded with
thirty-one: living beings were created: The first and second halves of the month were the
rulers. He lauded with thirty-one; existing things were tranquilized; Prajapati
Parameshthin was the ruler."
Here it should be noted that not only there is no unanimity between the Rig-Veda and the Yajur-Veda but there is no agreement between the two Samhitas of the Yajur-Veda on so important a subject as the origin of the Varnas.
Let us turn to the Atharva-Veda. The Atharva-Veda has also
two explanations to give. It incorporates the Purusha Sukta though the order of the verses
varies from the order in which they stand in the Rig-Veda. What is however important to
note is that the Atharva-Veda is not content with the Purusha Sukta. It offers other
explanations also. One such explanation reads as follows [f2]:
"The Brahman was born the first, with ten heads and ten
faces. He first drank the soma; he made poison
powerless ".
"The Gods were afraid of the Rajanya when he was in the
womb. They bound him with bonds when h.e was in the womb. Consequently this Rajanya is
born bound. If he were unborn unbound he would go on slaying his enemies. In regard to
whatever Rajanya any one desires that he should born unbound, and should go on slaying his
enemies, let him offer for him this Aindra-Birhaspatya oblation. A Rajanya has the
character of Indra, and a Brahman is Brihaspati. It is through the Brahman that any one
releases the Rajanya from his bond. The golden bond, a gift, manifestly releases from the
bond that fetters him. "
The other explanation speaks of people being descended from
Manu and is to be found referred to in the following passages[f3]:
" Prayers and hymns were formerly congregated in the
Indra, in the ceremony which Atharvan, father Manu, and Dadhyanch celebrated ".
" Whatever prosperity or succour father Manu obtained by sacrifices, may we gain all
that under thy guidance, 0 Rudra."
" Those pure remedies of yours, 0 Maruts, those which
are most auspicious, ye vigorous gods, those which are beneficient, those which our father
Manu chose, those, and the blessing and succour of Rudra, I desire."
" That ancient friend hath been equipped with the
powers of the mighty (gods). Father Manu has prepared hymns to
him, as portals of success to the gods." "Sacrifice is Manu, our protecting
father." " Do ye (gods) deliver, protect, and intercede for us; do not lead us
far away from the paternal path of Manu."
" He (Agni) who abides among the offspring of Manu as
the invoker (of the gods), is even the lord of these riches." -
"Agni, together with the gods, and the children of
Manush, celebrating a multiform sacrifice with hymns, etc." "Ye gods, Vajas, and
Ribhukshans, come to our sacrifice by the path travelled by the gods, that ye, pleasing
deities, may institute a sacrifice among these people of Manush on auspicious days ".
" The people of Manush praise in the sacrifices Agni-
the invoker."
"Whenever Agni, lord of the people, kindled, abides
gratified among the people of Manush, he repels all Rakshasas." Stopping for a moment
to take stock so to say of the position it is quite clear that there is no unanimity among
the Vedas on the origin of the four Vamas. None of the other Vedas agree with the Rig-Veda
that the Brahamin was created from the mouth of the Prajapati, the Kshatriyas from his
arms, the Vaishyas from his thighs and the Shudras from his feet.
II
Let us now turn to the writings called the Brahmanas and see
what they have to say on this question. The explanation given by the Sathpatha Brahmana is
as follows[f4]:
"(Uttering) 'bhuh',
Prajapati generated this earth. (Uttering) ' bhuvah
' he generated the air, and (uttering) ' svah
", he generated the sky. This universe is co-extensive with these worlds. (The
fire) is placed with the whole. Saying ' bhuh ',
Prajapati generated the Brahman; (saying) ''bhuvah'
he generated the Kshattra; (and saying) ' svah ',
he generated the Vis. The fire is placed with the whole, (saying) 'bhuh, Prajapati generated himself; (saying) ' bhuvah " he generated offspring; (saying) ' svah ', he generated animals. This world is so
much as self, offspring, and animals. (The fire) is placed with the whole. "
The Sathpatha Brahmana also gives another explanation. It
reads as follows'[f5]:
"Brahma (here, according to the Commentator, existing
in the form of Agni, and representing the Brahman caste) was formerly this (universe), one
only. Being one, it did not develop. It energetically created an excellent form, the
Kshattra, viz., those among the gods who are powers (kshattrani), Indra, Varuna, Soma
Rudra, Parjanya, Yama, Mrityu, Isana. Hence nothing is superior to the Kshattra. Therefore
the Brahman sits below the Kshattriya at the Rajasuya-sacrifice; he confers that glory on
the Kshattra (the royal power). This, the Brahma, is the source of the Kshattra; hence,
although the king attains supremacy, he at the end resorts to the Brahma as his source.
Whoever destroys him (the Brahman) destroys his own source. He becomes most miserable, as
one who has injured a superior. 24. He did not develop. He created the Vis those classes
of gods who are designated by troops, Vasus, Rudras, Adityas, Visvadevas, Maruts, 25. He
did not develop. He created the Sudra class, Pushan. This earth is Pushan; for she
nourishes all that exists. 26. He did not develop. He energetically created an excellent
form. Justice (Dharma). This is the ruler (kshattra) of the ruler (kshattra), namely
justice. Hence nothing is superior to justice. Therefore the weaker seeks (to overcome)
the stronger by justice, as by a king. This justice is truth. In consequence they say of a
man who speaks truth, ' he speaks justice; ' or of a man who .is uttering justice, 'he
speaks truth.' For this is both of these. 27. This is the Brahma, Kshattra, Vis, and
Sudra. Through Agni it became Brahma among the gods, the Brahman among men, through the
(divine) Kshatriya a (human) Kshattriya, through the (divine) Vaisya a (human) Vaisya,
through the (divine) Sudra a (human) Sudra. Wherefore it is in Agni among the gods and in
a Brahman among men, that they seek after an abode." The Taittiriya Brahmana offers
three explanations. First is in the following terms[f6]:
" This entire (universe) has been created by Brahma.
Men say that the Vaisya class was produced from Rick-verses. They say that the Yajur-Veda
is the womb from which the Kshattriya was born. The Sama-Veda is the source from which the
Brahmans sprang. This word the ancients declared to the ancients." The second says[f7]: " The Brahman caste is sprung from the gods; the
Sudra from the Asuras ". The third is as follows[f8]:
"Let him at his will milk out with a wooden dish. But let not a Sudra milk it out. For this Sudra has sprung from non-existence. They say that which a Sudra milks out is no oblation. Let not a Sudra milk out the Agnihotra. For they do not purify that. When that passes beyond the filter, then it is an oblation ". Ag^in looking at the testimony of the Brahmanas how far do they support the Purusha Sukta? Not one of them do.
III
The next thing would be to see what the Smritis have to
offer some explanation of the origin of the Varna system. It is worthwhile taking note of
them. This is What Manu has to say on the subject[f9].
"He (the self-existent) having felt desire, and willing
to create various living beings from his own body, first created the waters, and threw
into them a seed. 9. That seed became a golden egg, of lustre equal to the Sun; in it he
himself was born as a Brahma, the parent of all the worlds. 10. The waters are called narah, for they are sprung from Nara; and as they
were his first sphere of motion he is therefore called Narayana. 11. Produced from the imperceptible eternal,
existent and non-existent, cause, the male (Purusha) is celebrated in the world as Brahma.
12. After dwelling for a year in the egg, the glorious being, himself, by his own
contemplation, split it in twain." "That the worlds might be peopled, he caused
the Brahman, the Kshattriya, the Vaisya, and the Sudra to issue from his mouth, his arms,
his thighs, and his feet. 32. Having divided his own body into two parts, the lord (Brahma
became), with the half of male (purusha), and with the half, a female; and in her he
created Viraj. 33. Know, 0 most excellent twice-born men, that I, whom that male,
(Purusha) Viraj, himself am the creator of all this world.
34. Desiring to produce living creatures, I performed very
arduous devotion and first created ten Maharshis, Great rishis, lords of living beings,
35. viz., Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Prachetas, Vasishtha, Bhrigu,
and Narada. 36. They, endowed with great energy, created other seven Manus, gods, and
abodes of gods, and Maharshis of boundless might; 37. Yakshas, Rakshases, Pisachas, Gandharvas, Apsaras, Asuras, Nagas,
Serpents, great birds, and the different classes of pitris; 38. Lightnings, thunderbolts,
clouds, portentous atmospheric sounds, comets, and various luminaries; 39. Kinnars, apes,
fishes, different sorts of birds, cattle, deer, men, beasts with two rows of teeth; 40.
small and large reptiles mouths; lice, flies, fleas, all gadflies, and gnats, and
motionless things of different sorts. 41. Thus by my appointment, and by the force of
devotion, was all this World both motionless and moving, created by those great beings,
according to the (previous) actions of each creature." There is also another view
expressed by Manu in his Smriti as to the basic reasons for dividing men into four classes[f10]: " I shall now declare succinctly in order the states
which the soul reaches by means of each of these qualities. 40. Souls endowed with the Sattva quality attain to godhead; those having the
rajas quality become men; whilst those characterized by tamas always become beasts—such is the threefold
destination....... 43. Elephants, horses, Sudras and contemptible Mlenchhas, lions,
tigers, and boars form the middle dark condition...... 46. Kings, Kshattriyas, a King's
priests (purohitah), and men whose chief occupation is the war of words, compose the
middle condition of passion.... 48. Devotees, ascetics, Brahmans, the deities borne on
aerial cars, constellations, and Daityas, constitute the lowest condition of goodness. 49.
Sacrificing priests, rishis, Gods, the Vedas, the celestial luminaries, years, the
fathers, the Sadhyas, form the second condition of goodness. 50. Brahma, the creators,
righteousness, the Great one (mahat) the
Unapparent One (avyakta) compose the highest
condition of goodness. " Manu of course agrees with the Rig-Veda. But his view is of
no use for comparison. It is not original. He is merely repeating the Rig-Veda.
IV
It will be interesting to compare with these views those
contained in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
The Ramayana says that the four Varnas are the offspring of
Manu, the daughter of Daksha and the wife of Kasyapa[f11].
" Listen while I declare to you from the commencement
all the Prajapatis (lord of creatures) who came into existence in the earliest time.
Kardama was the first, then Vokrita, Sesha, Samsraya, the energetic Bahuputra, Sthanu,
Marichi, Atri, the strong Kratu, Pulastya, Angiras, Prachetas, Pulaha, Daksha, then
Vivasvat, Arishtanemi, and the glorious Kasyapa, who was the last. The Prajapati Daksha is
famed to have had sixty daughters. Of these Kasyapa took in marriage eight elegant
maidens, Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kalaka, Tamra, Krodhavasa, Manu and Anala. Kasyapa pleased,
then said to these maids, 'ye shall bring forth sons like me, preservers of the three
worlds. Aditi, Diti, Danu and Kalaka assented; but the others did not agree. Thirty-three
gods were born by Aditi, the Adilyas, Vasus, Rudras, and the two Asvins. Manu (wife) of
Kasyapa, produced men—Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. 'Brahmans were born
from the mouth, Kshattriyas from the breast, Vaisyas from the thighs, and Sudras from the
feet, ' So says the Veda. Anala gave birth to all trees with pure fruits." Strange,
very strange that Valmiki should have credited the creation of the four Varnas to Kassyapa
instead of to Prajapati. His knowledge was evidently based only on hearsay. It is clear he
did not know what the Vedas had said.
Now the Mahabharata gives four different explanations in
four different places. The first runs as follows:
" Born all with splendour, like that of great rishis,
the ten sons of Prachetas, reputed to have been virtuous and holy ; and by them the
glorious beings were formerly burnt up by fire springing from their mouths. From them was
born Daksha Prachetas, and from Daksha, the parent, of the world (were produced), these
creatures. Cohabiting with Virini, the Muni Daksha begot a thousand sons like himself,
famous for their religious observances, to whom Narada taught the doctrine of final
liberation, the unequalled knowledge of the Sankhya. Desirous of creating offspring, the
Prajapati Daksha next formed fifty daughters of whom he gave ten to Dharma, thirteen to
Kasyapa, and twenty-seven, devoted to the regulation of time, to Indu (Soma). . . . . on
Dakshayani, the most excellent of his thirteen wives, Kasyapa, the son of Marichi, begot
the Adityas, headed by Indra and distinguished by their energy, and also Vivasvat. To
Vivasvat was born a son, the mighty Yama Vaivasvata. ToMartanda (i.e. Vivasvat, the Sun)
was born the wise and mighty Manu, and also the renowned Yama, his (Manu's) younger
brother. Righteous was this wise Manu, on whom a race was founded. Hence this (family) of
men became known as the race of Manu. Brahmans, Kshattriyas, and other men sprang from
this Manu. From him 0 King, came the Brahman conjoined with the Kshatriya."
The theory propounded here is very much the same as that
contained in the Ramayana with this difference, namely, the Mahabharata makes Manu, the
progenitor of the four Varnas and secondly it does not say that the four Varnas were born
from the different parts of Manu.
The second explanation[f12] given by the Mahabharata follows what is given in the
Purusha Sukta of the Rig-Veda. It reads thus:
"The King should appoint to be his royal priest a man
who will protect the good, and restrain the wicked. On this subject they relate this
following ancient story of a conversation between Pururavas the son of lla and Matarisvan
(Vayu, the windgod). Pururavas said: "You must explain to me whence the Brahman, and
whence the (other) three castes were produced, and whence the superiority (of the first)
arises." Matarisvan answered: "The Brahman was created from Brahma's mouth, the
Kshatriya from his arms, the Vaisya from his thighs, while for the purpose of serving
these three castes was produced the fourth class, the Sudra, fashioned from his feet. The
Brahman, as soon as born, becomes the lord of all beings upon the earth, for the purpose
of protecting the treasure of righteousness. Then (the creator) constituted the Kshattriya
the controller of the earth, a second Yama to bear the rod, for the satisfaction of the
people. And it was Brahma's ordinance that the Vaisya should sustain these three classes
with money and grain, and that the Sudra should serve them." The son of lla then
enquired: "Tell me, Vayu to whom the earth, with its wealth rightfully belongs, to
the Brahman or the Kshattriya ? " Vayu replied: " All this, whatever exists in
the world is the Brahman's property by right of primogeniture; this is known to those who
are skilled in the laws of duty. It is his own which the Brahman eats, puts on, and
bestows. He is the chief of all the castes, the first-born and the most excellent. Just as
a woman when she has lost her (first) husband, takes her brother in law for a second; so
the Brahman is thy first resource in calamity; afterwards another may arise ". The
third view is expounded in the Shantiparva of the Mahabharata[f13]:
Bhrigu replied: ' Brahma thus formerly created the Prajapatis, penetrated by his own energy, and in splendour equalling the sun and fire. The lord then formed truth, righteousness austere fervour, and the eternal Veda (or sacred science), virtuous practice, and purity for (the attainment of) heaven. He also formed the Gods, Danavas, Gandharvas, Daityas, Asuras, Maharagas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, Nagas, Pisachas, and men, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, as well as all other classes (varna) of beings. The colour (varna) of the Brahmans was white; that of the Kshattriyas red; that of the Vaishyas yellow, and that of the Sudras black. ' Bharadvaja here rejoins: ' If the caste (varna) of the four classes is distinguished by their colour (varna), then a confusion of all the castes is observable. Desire, anger, fear, cupidity, grief, apprehension, hunger, fatigue, prevail over us all, by what then, is caste discriminated? Sweat, urine, excrement, phlegm, bile and blood (are common to all) the bodies of all decay; by what then is caste discriminated ? There are innumerable kinds of things moving and stationary how is the class (varna) of these various objects to be determined?' Bhrigu replies: "There is no difference of castes":"
The fourth explanation is also contained in the same Shantiparva. It says:
" Bharadvaja again enquires: ' What is that in virtue
of which a man is a Brahman, a Kshattriya, a Vaisya, or a Sudra; tell me, 0 most eloquent
Brahman rishi '. Bhrigu replies: ' He who is pure, consecrated by the natal and other
ceremonies, who has completely studied the Veda, lives in the practice of the six
ceremonies, performs perfectly the rites of purification, who eats the remains of
oblations, is attached to his religious teacher, is constant in religious observances, and
devoted to truth. — is called a Brahman. He in whom are seen truth, liberality
inoffensiveness, harmlessness, modesty, compassion, and austere fervour—is declared
to be a Brahman. He who practises the duty arising out of the kingly office, who is
addicted to the study of the Veda, and who delights in giving and receiving, is called a
Kshattriya. He who readily occupies himself with cattle, who is devoted to agriculture and
acquisition, who is pure, and is perfect in the study of the Veda,—is denominated a
Vaisya. He who is habitually addicted to all kinds of food, performs all kinds of work,
who is unclean, who has abandoned the Veda, and does not practise pure
observances,—is traditionally called a Sudra. And this (which I have stated) is the
mark of a Sudra, and it is not found in a Brahman: (such) a Sudra will remain a Sudra,
while the Brahman (who so acts) will be no Brahman. "
Except in one place the Mahabharata gives no support to the
Rig-Vedic origin of the Varna System.
V
Let us inquire what the Puranas have to say on the origin of
the Varna System.
To begin with the Vishnu Purana. There are three theories
propounded in the Vishnu Purana on the origin of the Chaturvarna. According to one the
origin is to be ascribed to Manu. Says the Vishnu Purana[f14]:
"Before the mundane egg existed the divine Brahma Hiranyagarbha, the eternal originator of all worlds, who was the form of essence of Brahma, who consists of the divine Vishnu, who again is identical with Rik, Yajush, Saman and Atharva Vedas. From Brahma's right thumb was born the Prajapati Daksha; Daksha had a daughter Aditi; from her was born Vivasvat; and from him sprang Manu. Manu had sons called Ikshvaku, Nriga, Dhrishta, Saryati, Narishanta, Pramsu, Nabhagandishta, Karusha and Prishadhra. From Karusha the Karushas, Kshattriyas of great power, were descended. Nabhaga, the son of Nedishta, became a Vaisya. "
This explanation is incomplete. It only explains the origin
of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. It does not explain the origin of Brahmanas and Sudras. There
is also another and a different version in the Vishnu Purana. It says:
" Desirous of a son, Manu sacrificed to Mitra and
Varuna; but in consequence of a wrong invocation through an irregularity of the hotri
(priest) a daughter called Illa was born. Then through the favour of Mitra and Varuna she
bore to Manu a son called Sudyumna. But being again changed into a female through the
wrath of lsvara (Mahadeva) she wandered near the hermitage of Budha the son of Soma (the
Moon); who becoming enamoured of her had by her a son called Pururavas. After his birth,
the God who is formed of sacrifice of the Rik, Yajush, Saman, and Atharva Vedas, of all
things, of mind, of nothing, he who is in the form of the sacrificial Male, was worshipped
by the rishis of infinite splendour who
desired that Sudyumna should recover his manhood. Through the fervour of this God Ila
became again Sudhumna." " According to the Vishnu Purana, Atri was the son Of
Brahma, and the father of Soma (the Moon), whom Brahma installed as the sovereign of
plants, Brahmans and stars. After celebrating the Rajasuya sacrifice, Soma became
intoxicated with pride, and carried up Tara (Star), the wife of Brihaspati, the preceptor
of the gods, whom, although admonished and entreated by Brahma, the gods, and rishis, he
refused to restore. Soma's part was taken by Usanas; and Rudra, who had studied under
Angiras, aided Brihaspati. A fiery conflict ensued between the two sides, supported
respectively by the gods and the Daityas, etc. Brahma interposed, and compelled Soma to
restore Tara to her husband. She had, however, in the meantime become pregnant and bore a
son Budha (the planet Mercury), of whom, when strongly urged, she acknowledged Soma to be
the father. Pururavas, as has been already mentioned, was the son of this Budha by Illa,
the daughter of Manu.
"Pururavas had six sons, of whom the eldest was Ayus.
Ayus had five sons: Nahusha, Kshattra-vriddha, Rambha; Raji, and Anenas."
"Kshattravriddha had a son Sunahotra, who had three
sons, Kasa, Lesa, and Gritsamada. From the last sprang Saunaka, who originated the system of four castes. Kasa had
a son Kasiraia, of whom again Dirghatamas was the son as Dhanvantari was
Dirghatamas." The third version ascribes[f15] the origin to Brahma. It says:
" Maitreya[f16] says: 'You have described to me the Arvaksrotas, or human
creation; declare to me, O Brahman, in detail the manner in which Brahma formed it. Tell
me how and with what qualities, he created the castes, and what are traditionally reputed
to be the functions of the Brahmans and others '. Parasara replies: 3. When, true to his
design, Brahma became desirous to create the world, creatures in whom goodness (sattva) prevailed sprang from his mouth: 4.
Others in whom passion (rajas) predominated came
from his breast; other in whom both passion and darkness (tamas) were strong, proceeded from his thigh; 5.
Others he created from his feet, whose chief characteristic was darkness. Of these was
composed the system of four castes, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, who had
respectively issued from his mouth, breast, thighs, and feet." Herein the Vishnu
Purana has given the Rig-Vedic theory supported by the Sankhya Philosophy. In the
Harivamsa are to be found two theories. One[f17] upholds the theory of the origin of the Varnas as being
born from one of the descendents of Manu as the stock of descent than the one mentioned by
the Vishnu Purana:
"The son
of Gritsamada was Sunaka, from whom sprang the Saunakas, Brahmanas, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas,
and Sudras. "
"Vitatha was the father of five sons, Suhotra, Suhotri, Gaya, Garga, and the great Kapila. Suhotra had two sons, the exalted Kasaka, and King Gritsamati. The sons of the latter were Brahmans, Kshattriyas and Vaisyas."
The other version speaks of their being formed by Vishnu who
sprang from Brahma and had become Prajapati Daksha and is as follows'[f18]:
"Janmejaya[f19] says: 'I have heard, O Brahman the (description of the)
Brahma Yuga, the first of the ages. I desire also to be accurately informed both
summarily, and in detail, about the age of the Kshattriyas, with its numerous observances,
illustrated as it was by sacrifice, and described, as it has been by men skilled in the
art of narration.' Vaisamapayana replied. 1 shall describe to you that age revered for its
sacrifices and distinguished for its various works of liberality, as well as for its
people. Emancipation, practising unobstructed ceremonies, both in action and in abstinence
from action constantly intent upon Brahma, united to Brahman as the highest
object,—Brahmans glorious and sanctified in their conduct, leading a life of
continence, disciplined by the knowledge of Brahman,—Brahmans complete in their
observances, perfect in knowledge, and contemplative,—when at the end of a thousand
yugas, their majesty was full, these Munis became involved in the dissolution of the
world. Then Vishnu, sprung from Brahma, removed beyond the sphere of sense, absorbed in
contemplation, became the Prajapati Daksha, and formed numerous creatures. The Brahmans,
beautiful (or, dear to Soma), were formed from an imperishable (akshara), the Kshattriyas from a perishable (kshara), element, the Vaisyas from alteration, the
Sudras from a modification of smoke. While Vishnu was thinking upon the castes (vaman) Brahmans were formed with white, red,
yellow, and blue colour (varnaih). Hence in the world men have become divided into castes,
being of four descriptions, Brahmans, Kshattriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, one in form,
distinct in their duties, two-footed, very wonderful, full of energy(?), skilled in
expedients in all their occupations. Rites are declared to be prescribed by the Vedas for
the three (highest) castes. By that contemplation practised by the being sprung from
Brahma—by that practised in his character as Vishnu—the Lord Prachetasa
(Daksha), i.e. Vishnu the great contemplator (Yogin), passed through his wisdom and energy
from that state of meditation into the sphere of works. Next the Sudras, produced from
extinction, are destitute of rites. Hence they are not entitled to be admitted to the
purificatory ceremonies, nor does sacred science belong to them. Just as the cloud of
smoke which rises from the fire on the friction of the fuel, and is dissipated, is of no
service in the sacrificial rite, so too the Sudras wandering over the earth, are
altogether (useless for purposes of sacrifice) owing to their birth, their mode of life
devoid of purity and their want of the observances prescribed in the Veda. "
The Bhagwat[f20] Purana has also an explanation as to the origin of the
Varnas, It says:
" At the end of many thousand years the living soul
which resides in time, action, and natural quality gave life to that lifeless egg floating
on the water. Purusha then having burst the egg, issued from it was a thousand thighs,
feet, arms, eyes, faces and heads. With his members the sages fashion the worlds, the
seven lower worlds with his loins etc., and the seven upper worlds with his groin, etc.
The Brahman was the mouth of Purusha, the Kshattriya his arms, the Vaishya was born from
the thighs, the Sudra from the feet of the divine being. The earth was formed from his
feet, the air from his navel; the heaven by the heart, and the mahaloka by the breast of
the mighty one. "
Lastly the Vayu
Purana. What does it say? It takes up the theory of Manu as the originator of the Varna
System.
" The son of Gritsamada was Sunaka, from whom sprang
Saunaka. In his family were born Brahmanas, Kshattriyas, Vaisya, and Sudras, twice-born
men with various functions."
VI
What a chaos? Why could the Brahmins not give a uniform, and
consistent explanation of the origin of the four Varnas?
On the issue of who created them, there is no uniformity.
The Rig-Veda says the four Varnas were created by Prajapati. It does not mention which
Prajapati. One would like to know which Prajapati it was who created the four Varnas. For
there are so many Prajapatis. But even on the point of creation by Prajapati there is no
agreement. One says they were created by Brahman. Another says they were created by
Kassyapa. The third says they were created by Manu.
On the issue how many Varnas, the creator—whoever he
was— created, again there is no uniformity. The Rig-Veda says four Varnas were
created. But other authorities say only two Varnas were created, some say Brahmans and
Kshatriyas and some say Brahmana and Shudras.
On the issue the relations intended by the creator for
binding together the four Varnas the Rig-Veda lays down the rule of graded inequality
based on the importance of the part of the creation from which the particular Varna was
born. But the white Yajur-Veda denies this theory of the Rig-Veda. So also the Upanishad,
Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. Indeed the Hari Vansha goes to the length of saying
that the Shudras are twice born.
This chaos seems to be the result of concoction of the
theory of Chaturvarna which the Brahmins quietly singled into the Rig-Veda contrary to
established traditions?
What was the purpose, what was the motive of the Brahmins
who concocted this theory?
THE FOUR ASHRAMAS—THE WHY AND HOW ABOUT THEM
The division of society into four orders called Vamas is not
the only peculiar feature of Hindu Society. What is called Ashram Dharma is another. There
is however one point of difference between the two. The Varna Dharma is a theory of the
organization of society. The Ashram Dharma on the other hand is a theory of regulating the
life of an individual.
The Ashram Dharma divides the life of an individual into
four stages (1) Brahmacharya, (2) Grahasthashram, (3) Vanaprastha and (4) Sannyas. The
state of Brahmacharya has both de jure and de facto connotation in that it means an
unmarried state of life. Its de jure connotation means the stage of study under a teacher.
Grahasthashram is the stage of a householder, a stage of a married family life. The stage
of Sannyas is a stage of renunciation of civic rights and responsibilities. It is a stage
of civic death. The stage of Vanaprastha is in between Grahasthashram and Sannyas. It is a
stage in which one belongs to society but is bound to live away from society. As the name
implies it prescribes dwelling in forest.
The Hindus believe that this institution of Ashram Dharma is
as vital as that of the Varna Dharma for the well-being society. They call the two by a
joint name of Varnashram Dharma as though they were one and integral. The two together
form the steel-frame of the Hindu Society.
To begin with it would be better to have a full understanding of the Ashram Dharma before inquiring into its origin and its purpose and its peculiarities. The best source for an exposition of the Ashram system is the Manu Smriti from which the following relevant extracts are reproduced:
This is an 18-page Manuscript. This is the typed first copy
with a title written in the author's handwriting.—Ed.
"In the eighth year after conception, one should
perform the initiation (upanayana) of a Brahmana, in the eleventh after conception (that)
of a Kshatriya, but in the twelfth that of a Vaisya[f21] ."
"A twice-born man who, not having studied the Veda,
applies himself to other (and worldly study), soon falls, even while living, to the
condition of a Sudra and his descendants (after him). "[f22]
"The vow of the three Vedas under a teacher must be
kept for thirty-six years or for half that time, or for a quarter, or until the (student)
has perfectly learnt them. "
" Who has studied in due order the three Vedas, or two,
or even one only, without breaking the (rule of) studentship, shall enter the order of
householder." [f23]
"The student, the householder, the hermit, and the
ascetic, these (constitute) four separate orders, which all spring from (the order of)
householders."
"But all (or) even (any of) these orders, assumed
successively in accordance with the Institutes (of the sacred law), lead the Brahmana who
acts by the preceding (rules) to the highest state."
"And in accordance with the precepts of the Veda and of
the Smriti, the housekeeper is declared to be superior to all of them; for he supports the
other three[f24] ."
" A Twice-born Snataka, who has thus lived according to
the law in the order of householders, may, taking a firm resolution and keeping his organs
in subjection, dwell in the forest, duly (observing the rules given below):
"When a householder sees his (skin) wrinkled and (his
hair) white, and the sons of his sons, then he may resort to the forest[f25] ."
" But having thus passed the third part of (a man's
natural term of) life in the forest, he may live as an ascetic during the fourth part of
his existence, after abandoning all attachment to worldly objects."
"He who after passing from order to order, after
offering sacrifices and subduing his senses, becomes tired with (giving alms and offerings
of food), as ascetic, gains bliss after death."
"When he has paid the three debts, let him apply his mind to (the attainment
of) final liberation; he who seeks it without having paid (his debts) sinks
downwards."
" Having studied the Vedas in accordance with the rule,
having begot sons according to the sacred law, and having offered sacrifices according to
his ability, he may direct his mind to (the attainment of) final liberation." "A
twice-born man who seeks final liberation, without having studied the Vedas, without
having begotten sons, and without having offered sacrifices, sinks downwards'[f26] ." From these rules it is clear that according to Manu
there are three features of the Ashram Dharma. First is that it is not open to Shudras and
women. The second is Brahmacharya which is compulsory, so is Grahasthashram. Vanaprastha
and Sannyas are not compulsory. The third is that one must pass from one stage to another
in the order in which they stand namely first Brahmacharya, then Grahasthashram, then
Vanaprastha and lastly Sannyas. No one can omit one and enter the next stage.
A cursory reflection on this system of stages which may well
be called a system of planned economy of the life of the individual raises many questions.
First is what forced Manu to have such a system of planned economy. Referring to the
Vedas, the theory of stages in life is quite unknown. The Vedas speak of Brahmachari. But
there is nothing to show that Brahmacharya was regarded as the first and inescapable stage
in life. Why did the Brahmins make Brahmacharya as the compulsory stage in the life of an
individual? This is the first riddle about the Ashram Dharma.
The second question is why Manu made it obligatory to
observe the order of sequence in the following of the different stages of life by the
individual. Now there is no doubt that there was a time when it was open to a Brahmachari
to enter any of the three Ashrams! He may become a Grahasthashrami or he may at once
become a Sannyasi without becoming a Grahasthashrami. Compare what the authors of the
Dharma Sutras have to say on the point. Vasistha Dharma Sutra[f27] says: "There are four orders viz. (that of) the
student, (that of) the householder, (that of) the hermit, and (that of) the ascetic
".
"A man who has studied one, two or three Vedas without
violating the rules of studentship, may enter any of these (orders) whichsoever he
pleases. " Gautama Dharma Sutra[f28] says: "Some (declare, that) he (who has studied the
Veda) may make his choice (which) among the orders (he is going to enter.)"
The four orders are, (that of) the student (that of) the
householder, (that) of the ascetic (bhikshu) (and that of) the hermit in the woods
(Vaikhanasa).
It is obvious from the views expressed by the Dharma
Shastras that there was a time when the married state was an optional state. After
Brahmacharya one would straight enter the stage of Vanaprastha or Sannyasa. Why did Manu
remove the option and make the married state an obligatory state, why did he make the
married state a condition precedent to the stage of hermit and the stage of hermit a
condition precedent to the stage of a Sannyas?
After Grahasthashtram there remain two stages to complete
the round of life—Vanaprastha and Sannyas. The question is why Manu felt the
necessity of life of the individual after Grahasthsram into two stages. Why was one stage
of Sannyas not enough? The rules of regulating the life of the Vanaprastha and the
Sannyasi as laid down in Manu are so alike that they give some point to the question.
In the following table a comparative study is made of the
Codes for the Vanaprastha and the Sannyasa as prescribed by Manu:
The Code for
Vanaprastha |
The Code for
Sannyasi |
"Abandoning all food raised by cultivation and all his
belongings, he may depart into the forest, either committing his wife to his sons, or
accompanied by her." Ch. Vl-3. |
"Having performed the Ishti, sacred to the Lord of
creatures(Prajapati) where (he gives) all his property as the sacrificial fee, having
reposited the sacred fires in himself, a Brahmana may depart from his house, (as an
ascetic)." Ch. Vl-38. |
"Taking with him the sacred fire and the implements
required for domestic (sacrifices) he may go forth from the village into the forest and
reside there, duly controlling his senses." Ch. Vl-4 |
"Worlds, radiant in brilliancy, become (the portion) of
him who recites (the texts) regarding Brahman and departs from his house (as an ascetic),
after giving a promise of safety to all created beings." Ch. Vl-39. |
" Let him offer those five great sacrifices according
to the rule, with various kinds of pure food fit for ascetics, or with herbs, roots and
fruit." VI-5. |
" For that twice-born man, by whom not the smallest
danger there will be no danger from any(quarter) after he is freed from his body."
Ch. VI-40. |
" Let him wear a skin or a tattered garment; let him
bathe in the evening or in the morning and let him always wear (his hair in) braids the
hair on his body, his beard, and his nails (being unclipped)." VI-6. |
" Departing from his house fully provided with the
means of purification (Pavitra), let him wander about absolutely silent, and caring
nothing for enjoyments that may be offered (to him)." Ch. VI-41. |
" Let him perform the Bali-offering with such food as
he eats and give alms according to his ability; let him honour those who come to his
hermitage with alms consisting of water roots and fruit." VI-7. |
" Let him always wander alone, without any companion,
in order to attain (final liberation) fully understanding that the solitary (man, who)
neither forsakes nor is forsaken, gains his end." Ch. VI-42. |
'" Let him be always industrious in privately reciting
the Veda; let him be patient of hardships, friendly (towards all), of collected mind, ever
liberal and never a receiver of gifts, and compassionate towards all living
creatures." VI-8. " Let him offer, according to the law, the Agni-hotra with
three sacred fires, never omitting the new-moon and full-moon sacrifices at the proper
time." VI-9. |
" He shall neither possess a fire, nor a dwelling, he
may go to a village for his food, (he shall be) indifferent to everything, firm of
purpose, meditating (and) concentrating his mind on Brahman." Ch. VI-43. |
" Let him also offer the Nakshatreshti, the Agrayana,
and the Katurmasya (sacrifices), as well as the Turayana and likewise the Dakshayana, in
due order." VI-10. |
"A potsherd (instead of an alms-bowl) the roots of
trees (for a dwelling), coarse worn-out garments, life in solitude and indifference
towards everything, are the marks of one who has attained liberation. Ch. VI-44. "
Let him not desire to die, let him not desire to live, let him wait for (his appointed)
time, as a servant (waits) for the payment of his wages." Ch. VI-45. |
" With pure grains, fit for ascetics, which grow in
spring and in autumn, and which he himself has collected, let him severally prepare the
sacrificial cakes (purodasa) and the boilded messes (karu), as the law directs." VI-1
11. |
" Delighting in what refers to the Soul, sitting (in
the postures prescribed by the Yoga), independent (of external help) entirely abstaining
from sensual enjoyments, with himself for his only companion, he shall live in this world,
desiring the bliss (of final liberation." Ch. VI-49. |
" Having offered those most pure sacrificial viands,
consisting of the produce of the forest, he may use the remainder for himself (mixed with)
salt prepared by himself." VI-12. |
" Neither by (explaining) prodigies and omens, nor by
skill in astrology and palmistry nor by giving advice and by the exposition (of the
Sastras) let him, ever seek to obtain alms." Ch. VI-50. |
" Let him eat vegetables that grow on dry land or in
water, flowers, roots and fruits, the productions of pure trees, and oils extracted from
forest-fruits." VI-13. |
" Let him not (in order to beg) go near a house filled
with hermits, Brahmanas, birds, dogs or other mendicants." Ch. VI-51. |
"Let him avoid honey, flesh and mushrooms growing on
the ground(or elsewhere, the vegetables called) Bhustrina, and Sigruka, and the
Sleshmantaka fruit."VI-14. |
" His hair, nails and beards being clipped carrying an
alms-bowl, a staff, and a
water-pot, let him continually wander 'about controlling himself and not hurting any
creature." Ch.VI-52. |
"Let him throw away in the month of Asvina the food of
ascetics. which he formerly collected, likewise his worn-out clothes and his vegetables,
roots, and fruit." VI-15. |
" His vessels shall not: be made of metal, they shall
be free from fractures it is ordained that they shall be cleansed with water, like(the
cups, called) Kamasa, at a sacrifice." Ch. VI-53. |
"Let him not eat anything (grown on) ploughed (land),
though it may have been thrown away by somebody, nor roots and fruit grown in a village,
though (he may be) tormented (by hunger)." VI-16. |
"A gourd, a wooden bowl, an earthen (dish), or one made
of split cane, Manu the son of Svayambhu, has declared (to be) vessels
(suitable) for an ascetic." Ch.VI-54. |
" He may eat either what has been cooked with fire, or
what has been ripened by time: he either may use a stone for grinding or his teeth his
mortar." VI-17. |
" Let him go to beg once (a day), let him not be eager
to obtain a large quantity (of alms); for an be ascetic who eagerly seeks, alms, attaches
himself also to sensual enjoyments." Ch. VI-55. |
" He may either at once (after his daily meal) cleanse
(his vessel for collecting food), or lay up a store sufficient for a month, or gather what
suffices for six months or for a year." VI-18. |
" When no smoke ascends from (the kitchen), when the
pestle lies motionless, when the embers have been extinguished, when the people have
finished their meal, when the remnants in the dishes have been removed, let the ascetic
always go to beg." Ch. VI-56. |
" Having collected food according to his ability he may
either eat at night (only) or in the daytime (only), or at every fourth mealtime, or at
every eighth." VI-19. |
" Let him not be sorry when he obtains nothing, nor
rejoice when he obtains (something), let him (accept) so much only as will sustain life,
let him not care about the (quality of his) utensils." Ch. VI-57. |
" Or, he may live according to the rule of the lunar
penance (Kandrayana), daily diminishing the quality of his food in the bright (half of the
month) and (increasing it in the dark (half); or he may eat on the last days of each
fortnight once (a day only), boiled barley-gruel." VI-20. |
"Let him disdain all (food) obtained in consequence of
humble salutations, (for) even an ascetic who has attained final liberation, is bound
(with the fetters of the Samsara) by accepting (food given) in consequence of humble
salutations." Ch. VI-58. |